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Corporate Matters: Anatomy of a Limited Liability Company Agreement – Part I

Simon H. Prisk and Nina Krauthamer begin a series on the reasons why a carefully crafted L.L.C. agreement is important in a joint venture.  Commonly referred to as an operating agreement, this governance tool addresses the purpose, management, and overall operation of an L.L.C. and the obligations of members to make capital contributions.

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A Concise Guide to Acquisition Vehicles for Purchase of U.S. Real Estate by Foreign Individuals

Question: How many ways are there to structure an investment in U.S. real property by a foreign person? Answer: Many. Nina Krauthamer describes five.

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The Peripatetic Client: What to Expect When a Foreign Settlor Becomes a U.S. Tax Resident

Published in GGi Insider No. 81, January 2016 (p.35).

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Congress Enacts Sweeping New Partnership Audit Rules

Partnerships owning real estate or other assets sometimes take aggressive tax positions that may invite I.R.S. scrutiny. Philip R. Hirschfeld and Nina Krauthamer explain the new partnership audit rules enacted by Congress in November as part of the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015. With limited exception, partnerships will become liable for tax increases arising from audit adjustments. This treatment raises the importance of tax indemnities when partnership interests are acquired.

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An Englishman in New York – Tax Considerations for Foreign Individuals

The phrases “green card” and “U.S. citizen” have the ability to strike panic and even terror in tax advisors around the world. What inspires this fear? What tax challenges do foreign individuals face when they are present in the U.S. on a temporary, non-immigrant basis?

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Inadequate Gift Description – I.R.S. Tries for a Second Bite at the Apple

What constitutes adequate disclosure? This topic continues to be a source of dispute between taxpayers and the I.R.S. Sheryl Shah and Nina Krauthamer discuss the statute of limitations consequences when a taxable gift that is not “adequately shown.”

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Temporary Regulations Alter C.F.C.'s Active Rents and Royalties Exception to Subpart F

Newly issued temporary regulations (T.D. 9733) modify three of the six ways that rental or royalty income can qualify for the active exception to foreign personal holding company income (F.P.H.C.I.) under Subpart F. The new Treas. Reg. §1.954-2T addresses who can perform the required functions when a controlled foreign corporation (C.F.C.) leases or licenses property to an unrelated person, as well as the treatment of cost sharing arrangements.

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Notice 2015-54 on Reallocation to Foreign Partners – The Beginning of the End?

We address the I.R.S.’s latest attempt to shut down schemes to avoid U.S. taxation by cracking down on what some may have considered a loop-hole under applicable partnership rules. In Notice 2015-54, 2015-34 IRB 210 (8/06/2015), the I.R.S. announced that it intends to issue regulations that would change the nonrecognition rules on certain property contributions to partnerships and L.L.C.’s with foreign partners. The new regulations would require that income or gain attributable to property be taken into account by the U.S. transferor, either immediately or periodically. Regulations would also be issued under §§482 and 6662 of the Internal Revenue Code (the Code) that apply to controlled transactions involving partnerships to ensure appropriate valuation of such transactions.

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U.S. Taxation of Carried Interest

Favorable long-term capital gains tax treatment for managers of hedge funds has been under attack by the Obama Administration. While the industry defended itself from outright changes to favorable tax treatment, the I.R.S. recently proposed to disallow favorable treatment where a manager’s right to payments bears no entrepreneurial risk. Nina Krauthamer, Philip R. Hirschfeld, and Kenneth Lobo explain.

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The Hewlett-Packard Debt v. Equity Case – Reply Brief Filed

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INTRODUCTION

The focus of a debt-versus-equity inquiry generally narrows to whether there was intent to create a debt with a reasonable expectation of repayment and, if so, whether that intent comports with the economic reality of creating a debtor-creditor relationship. This determination has led various courts of appeals to identify and consider a multi-factor test for resolving such inquires.

In the typical debt-versus-equity case, the I.R.S. will argue for equity characterization whereas the taxpayer will endeavor to secure debt characterization to obtain an interest deduction. In some cases, the roles are reversed, but this does not require that courts apply different legal principles. Some courts consider 10 factors, while others consider as many as 16 factors. No matter how many factors are considered, the multi-factor test is the established, standard analysis used in such disputes.

P.L.R. 201446025 – A Change of I.R.S. Direction?

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INTRODUCTION

U.S. charities are required to obtain I.R.S. approval in order to be exempt from federal income tax under §501(a) of the Internal Revenue Code (the “Code”). Under Code §508(a), new organizations must notify the Secretary of the Treasury that they are applying for recognition of Code §501(c)(3) status. In order to establish such exemption, Treasurey Regulation §1.1501(a)-1(a)(2) requires that an organization must file an appropriate application form with the district director for the internal revenue district in which the principal place of business of the organization is located. Furthermore, any rulings or determination letters holding the organization exempt are effective so long as there are no material changes in the organization’s character, purposes, or methods of operation. To be tax-exempt under §501(c)(3), an organization must be organized and operated exclusively for exempt purposes and none of its earnings may inure to any private shareholder or individual.

This begs the following question: If a charity changes its organizational structure or state of incorporation, will a new application be required?

Art for Art

Art for Art

Taxpayers are usually taxed on net gains from the sale of property. However, tax may be deferred if the transaction is cast as an exchange and certain conditions are met. Art investors are now employing these methods to defer tax on gains from the sale of appreciated art by exchanging one piece of artwork for another. In this article, Nina Krauthamer and Sheryl Shah address the application of the like-kind exchange provisions under Code §1031, traditionally used for investment and business real estate, to the exchange of works of art.

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India’s $6.4 Billion Tax on Foreign Investment

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Foreign institutional investors in India have been troubled by the demands from Indian tax officials to pay liabilities owed under the newly enforced minimum alternate tax (“M.A.T.”). India’s Finance Minister, Arun Jaitley, announced that beginning April 1, portfolio investors residing in countries that have tax treaties with India are fully exempt from the tax and will not have to pay the accompanying 20% levy on past capital gains.

The M.A.T. is essentially a minimum corporate tax that creates an overall tax of 20% on capital gains. Previously, foreign investors paid 15% on short term listed equity gains, 5% on bond gains, and nothing on long term gains.

In 2014, India’s Finance Ministry began issuing notices to foreign companies for the payment of the M.A.T. on past capital gains amounting to $6.4 billion, collectively. The Finance Ministry has not enforced the M.A.T. on foreign institutional investors for over 20 years, according to the international fund organization, Investment Company Institute Global. Foreign institutional investors have been contending that the M.A.T. should only apply to Indian companies, not foreign entities.

Corporate Matters: Partnerships

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In previous issues, we discussed limited liability companies and the various benefits of using such entities, including pass-through taxation, asset protection, ease of formation and flexibility. There are partnerships that can be used to achieve the same results that may be of particular interest to individuals from jurisdictions where the limited liability company is not recognized to the same extent as it is in the United States. These are “Limited Partnerships,” “Limited Liability Partnerships” and “Limited Liability Limited Partnerships.” We thought it may be helpful to outline the differences between these three types of partnerships. Research should be conducted on a state-by-state basis depending on the jurisdiction one is interested in – the following discussion focusses on Delaware.

LIMITED PARTNERSHIP

A Limited Partnership is a partnership where one or more of the owners are general partners and one or more of the owners are limited partners. The general partners have unlimited liability and are liable for all of the partnership’s debts and obligations. The limited partners have limited liability – limited to the amount of capital they have invested in the partnership. General partners control the partnership and are responsible for its operation. Limited partners have no say in the operation of the partnership and are subject to losing liability protection if they are found to be participating in the management of the partnership. The Delaware Revised Uniform Limited Partnership Act (“DRLPA”) provides that “a limited partner is not liable for the obligations of a limited partnership unless he or she is also a general partner or, in addition to the exercise of the rights and power of a limited partner, he or she participates in the control of the business.”

LIMITED LIABILITY PARTNERSHIP

A Limited Liability Partnership is a general partnership for which an election has been made to obtain limited liability for all of the general partners. Unlike a Limited Partnership, in a Limited Liability Partnership there are no limited partners and all partners can participate in the management of the partnership. As a general rule, the partners of a Delaware general partnership are liable for all of the obligations of the partnership.

Using a §897(i) Non-Discrimination Election to Avoid F.I.R.P.T.A.

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Mistakes happen. Often nonresident alien individuals buy U.S. real property, often personal use property, in their individual names. This can be a costly mistake. With certain exceptions, if such an individual were to die while owning the property, a U.S. estate tax of approximately 40% of the value of the property could be imposed.

There is one method to restructure this investment in the case of a foreign individual, or an entity owned by a foreign individual, if such a person is eligible to claim the benefit of an income tax treaty with the United States and the treaty contains a so-called “Nondiscrimination Clause.” These clauses provide that a resident of a treaty state will not be treated any less favorably than a U.S. resident carrying on the same activities. This article will look at how a Nondiscrimination Clause can be used to avoid onerous F.I.R.P.T.A. provisions when a foreign person invests in U.S. real property.

The technique described in this article essentially permits a nonresident alien individual to transfer U.S. real property on a tax-free basis to a foreign entity, which will be treated as a domestic entity for income tax purposes and as a foreign (non-taxable) entity for U.S. estate tax purposes.

Debt vs. Equity: Comparing HP Appeal Arguments to the PepsiCo Case

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INTRODUCTION

Historically, the I.R.S. and taxpayers often disagreed over whether a loan between related entities should be treated as equity rather than true debt. As a result, substantial case law has built up over the years, especially involving closely-held entities. One such case is Mixon, which was discussed in our prior publication from April 2014 as the leading case law providing for the 13 factors to be considered in debt-equity cases. In recent years, the I.R.S. has begun to focus on the debt-equity issue in the cross border arena, and new decisions are being issued. Two 2012 cases, in the United States Tax Court (the “Tax Court” or “Court”), went in different directions. In PepsiCo, the taxpayer prevailed and equity treatment was upheld. In contrast, the I.R.S. prevailed in Hewlett-Packard, where the Tax Court was convinced that the transaction should be categorized as a loan rather than equity. In this case, the court looked beyond the instrument at issue and also examined agreements between the shareholders in the transaction.

Earlier this year, Hewlett-Packard (“HP”) appealed its loss in the Tax Court to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, arguing that the lower court’s finding – that the investment displayed more “qualitative and quantitative indicia of debt than equity” – was “clearly erroneous.”

HP CASE – FACTS AND TAX COURT DECISION

HP purchased an interest in a Dutch corporation, Foppingadreef (“FOP”), from AIG in 1996. The investment was originally structured by AIG as an equity investment in preferred shares. The other shareholder was a Dutch bank, ABN AMRO (“ABN”). FOP’s Articles of Incorporation provide that it was organized for the purpose of investing its assets in contingent interest notes (“C.I.N.’s”) and other approved debt instruments. FOP invested in C.I.N.’s issued by ABN which provided for interest consisting of a fixed element and a contingent element. The terms of the preferred shares, as structured by AIG, gave HP voting rights and preferred entitlement to dividend distributions. HP’s vote was slightly more than 20%.

Corporate Matters: Limited Liability Company Agreements

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In a previous issue, we discussed shareholder agreements and set out items that one should look for in such an agreement. A related topic, but one with subtle differences – particularly on the tax side – concerns the agreements used to govern the management and operation of limited liability companies. In the Delaware Limited Liability Company Act, these agreements are referred to as “limited liability company agreements,” and in the New York Limited Liability Company Law, they are referred to as “operating agreements.” In practice, however, the terms are used interchangeably. For purposes of this article, we will use limited liability company agreement (“L.L.C. Agreement”), as Delaware is the state most frequently used for limited liability company formation.

STATE REQUIREMENTS

Although many states do not require a limited liability company to have an executed L.L.C. Agreement, it is prudent to outline the internal governance procedures of the entity in a legal document. There really is no reason why the members of a limited liability company should not have a functioning governing document. An L.L.C. Agreement does not necessarily have to be a long or complicated document; it will allow you to effectively structure your financial and working relationship with your co-owners in a way that is suited to the type of business you are engaged in. Furthermore, having an agreement will help protect your limited liability status, particularly for single-member limited liability companies, as well as prevent management disagreements and ensure that the business is governed by rules of your making, rather than as stipulated by a particular state statute.

Care should be taken in drafting the agreement, however, as although many statutes provide a lot of discretion for members of a limited liability company to define the terms of their relationship – state statutes contain fundamental governing provisions that members of a limited liability company can contract out of – courts have relied on the plain language contained in the contracts and have resisted creating ambiguities based on extrinsic evidence.

Tax 101: Understanding U.S. Taxation of Foreign Investment in Real Property – Part III

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INTRODUCTION

This is the final article in a three-part series that explains U.S. taxation under the Foreign Investment in Real Property Tax Act of 1980 (“F.I.R.P.T.A.”). This article looks at certain planning options available to taxpayers and the tax consequences of each.

These planning structures aim to mitigate taxation by addressing several different taxable areas of the transaction. They work to avoid gift and estate taxes, and double taxation of cross-border events and corporate earnings, while simultaneously striving for preferential treatment (e.g., long-term capital gains treatment), as well as limiting over-withholding, contact with the U.S. tax system, and liability. Often, such structures are helpful in facilitating inter-family transfers and preserving the confidentiality of the persons involved.

PRE-PLANNING

As with everything else, planning can go a long way when it comes to maximizing U.S. real estate investments. Here are a few questions to ask:

Investor Background

  1. Where is the investor located?
  2. Where is the investment located?
  3. What kind of business is the investor engaged in?

2014 Tax Extenders Legislation Finally Approved

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SUMMARY

On December 19, President Obama signed into law the Tax Increase Prevention Act of 2014 (the “Act”). The Act extended more than 50 expired tax-related provisions through the end of 2014, allowing taxpayers to claim a number of tax deductions, credits, and other benefits for the 2014 tax year. Since the Act does not generally cover 2015 and later years, Congress will have to debate the merits of these many expiring provisions all over again in 2015. Taxpayers are once again faced with making decisions based upon the hope that Congress will act to renew the provisions.

Legislative materials indicate that the 2014 expiration date was based upon budgetary and political concerns. The Act is projected to cost U.S. taxpayers $41.6 billion over 10 years, with no new federal revenue to offset the cost. Half of the cost comes from the $7.6 billion credit for business research and development costs, a $6.4 billion tax break for renewable energy production plants, and a $5.1 billion tax exception that allows financial firms and other businesses to defer U.S. taxes on certain foreign profits.

EXTENDED PROVISIONS

The heart of the Act is the extension of many tax deductions and credits that expired on January 1, 2014.

Tax 101: Understanding U.S. Taxation of Foreign Investment in Real Property - Part II

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This article examines the U.S. income, gift, and estate tax consequences to a foreign owner upon a sale or other disposition of U.S. real property, including a sale of real estate, sale of stock of a U.S. corporation, or a sale of a mortgage secured by U.S. real property.

In addition to (or sometimes in lieu of) rental income, many foreign investors hope to realize gain upon a disposition of U.S. real property. The Foreign Investment in Real Property Tax Act of 1980 (“F.I.R.P.T.A.”) dictates how gains are taxed from the disposition of United States Real Property Interests (“U.S.R.P.I.’s”). The law has a fairly extensive definition of U.S. real property for this purpose. Most significantly, the law provides for a withholding mechanism in most cases.

WHAT IS A U.S.R.P.I.?

A U.S.R.P.I. includes the following:

  • Land, buildings, and other improvements;
  • Growing crops and timber, mines, wells, and other natural deposits (but not severed or extracted products of the land);
  • Tangible personal property associated with the use, improvement, and operation of real property such as:
    • Mining equipment used to extract deposits from the ground,
    • Farm machinery and draft animals on a farm,
    • Equipment used in the growing and cutting of timber,
    • Equipment used to prepare land and carry out construction, and
    • Furniture in lodging facilities and offices.

  • Direct or indirect rights to share in appreciation in value, gross or net proceeds, or profits from real property;
  • Ownership interests other than an interest solely as a creditor, including:
    • Fee ownership;
    • Co-ownership;
    • Leasehold interest in real property;
    • Time-sharing interest;
    • Life estate, remainder, or reversionary interest; and
    • Options, contracts, or rights of first refusal.